The Heart of Europe

Memorable, breathtaking and romantic are best words to describe Prague, the capital city of Czech Republic. It is the center of culture in Europe which always offers unique experience for everyone to visit. Prague is also known as the City of a Thousand Spires where ex-communism generation, cosmopolites and even liberalists mingle peacefully in modern shopping centre and old town square. No need to worry about high budget of pleasure as there are many interesting places are free to enjoy. Additionally, Czech Republic is one of few countries that are not colonized by unstable euro currency so that happiness is affordable for tourist.

Great period of Prague was started by King Charles IV in 1357, particularly when he built amazing historical bridge under his name in with Christian statues on the left and right side. Here is the place for musicians and artists to sell their stunning collection. After World War I, Prague was chosen as the capital city of the creation of Czechoslovakia, a central point of Europe on that moment. Next unforgettable history of Prague is communism era under the Soviet Union for more than forty years which suppressed any independence idea of Czech intellectual. Finally, this dark period of Prague was transformed by united student movement through peaceful demonstration called “Velvet Revolution” in 1989 that brought down the communist regime. Its history is both controversial and interesting to attract anyone not only taking great photos but also feeling deeply the ambiance of corner space in the city.

One of the main highlights in the city is Prague Castle where tourists start their journey on the high landscape and then step down to the Old Town (Staré město). The guide book definitely states that Prague Castle is the largest ancient castle in the world where the President of Czech Republic stays on day as well. St. Vitus Cathedral and Basilica St. George are the most stunning buildings must be visited. Do not forget to stop by at the charming small street with short houses, namely Golden Lane. Before going down to Prague’s Old Town square, beautiful scenery of the city would astonish our senses. Bear in mind to pay attention to the watch while visiting Old Town since free unique attraction in Astronomical Clock (Pražský orloj) will come up every hour. Another way to enjoy the trip here is by finding differences of two spires on the Church of Our Lady before Tyn which are not symmetrical. Notable place to take a look in old town is definitely center of the square where the home for Jan Hus Memorial statue, a religious reformer figures in Prague.

By free walking tours within 4-5 hours, it is easy to enjoy all memorial buildings and fun experience in Prague, including the people. The majority of the inhabitants in Prague are Czechs with their own characteristics which may mostly be found in the Wenceslas Square. It is the meeting point and popular shopping center for any circumstances, such as business, study group or just gossiping. Come inside to one café and mingle. Although most of them are friendly and welcoming, be aware that they are sometimes careful to unknown foreigners who greet and make introduction with any manners. It seems that past communism era is still there with old generation who grew up under this kind of memory. Do not worry too much about the gap language; almost all young people are able to speak English very fluently to help foreigners with their hospitality, if lucky. At least people here are aware that tourism is very vital to the nation’s economy in Prague as well as entire Czech Republic.

Famous for old delicious recipes, tourist should be ready to be surprised with specialties at Czech restaurant. Highly recommended is Svíčková na smetaně, roasted beef in sour cream with bread dumplings and served with slice of lemon, cranberry sauce and whipped cream topping. No wonder if fusion cuisine is found in a 1800s Czech cookbook. To be part of local culture in Prague, everyone must sit in any pub (hospoda) and order different brand of beer altogether. Pilsner Urquell, Gambrinus and Budweiser Budvar are internationally recognized Czech beers which must be provided in the city. Drinking beer is the first and easiest way to make friends in Prague as local people are always being proud of. Good to know that Czech Republic is in the highest rank of beer consumption in Europe and might be in the world.

The City of Prague is also the right place for pleasure seekers in the clubs. Its night life is always entertaining any kind of people, for real clubbing or just quick dance and late drink. Cocktail bars could be the meeting point to wait friends and plan your journey all night long in Prague. If classic bartending is not amusing enough, there are always dance clubs to be visited. This city is one of clubbing hot spots in Europe by attracting people with DJ’s from all over the world. Do not forget that pubs, traditional restaurants and fusion clubs are always there for anyone who getting bored with crowded noisy places. Enjoy nightlife in Prague!

Apart from these magnificent buildings and extravagant entertainment, Prague is much more than you ever imagined. Located in the heart of Europe, it is easy to reach Prague for tourist who is planning to take a long journey around Schengen countries. Spring and summer are recommended seasons to visit here, even though winter also offers its beauty of snow and pleasure in another way. There is also much to see outside the city, such as Český Krumlov which is enlisted as UNESCO World Heritage Site along with Prague Castle. With so much exciting attraction, the number of days seems never enough to explore the city. It offers you broad view of European experience, from melancholic history to the live performance in the clubs. The city is witness of majestic Baroque and Gothic as well as the fall of communism by memorable Velvet Revolution. Prague will surely make you keep precious moments deep in your heart day by day.

Summer in Europe 2010

Summer in Europe Slideshow: Raka’s trip from Praha, Bohemia, Republik Ceko to 5 cities Paris, Wina, Brussels, The Hague and Volendam was created by TripAdvisor. See another Prancis slideshow. Take your travel photos and make a slideshow for free.

The Rationalist Reasons to the Disparity of Benefits within the Eastern Partnership

Abstract

The European Union has launched its Eastern Partnership initiative (EaP) as a tool to accelerate political association and further economic integration with six Eastern partner countries. However, the disparity of benefits within the EaP exists when mutual profit could not be achieved logically due to the wide gap of capacity among both parties. The EU is exceedingly powerful to press and steer the policies of Eastern partners. Nevertheless, six Eastern partners have decided to join the EaP as the most rational choice, even though there is no prospect of EU membership. The domestic situations in poor way and international pressure have been pushing them to find external capable actor, particularly the EU. In addition to this, there is a disproportionate burden of the EU to bear six Eastern partner’s cost in achieving the main goal of the EaP which makes it more beneficial decision for them.

P.S. It is my Bachelor Thesis after having research at Metropolitan University Prague, Czech Republic. I finished it under supervision of lecturers and professors of Universitas Pembangunan Nasional "Veteran" Yogyakarta in 2010. Should you need any further information, please feel free to contact me on pamungkas.raka@gmail.com. Thank you

Berhati-hatilah (Nge-kos) di Surabaya

Setelah melakukan pengamatan selama 2,5 bulan, akhirnya saya memutuskan menulis ini. Tujuan saya menulis ini sekarang adalah agar tidak terbentuk fitnah ataupun kebohongan belaka yang penuh sensasi. Awalnya, pada pertengahan April 2011 saya dipindahtugaskan dari Jakarta ke Surabaya. Oleh teman dekat, saya dicarikan kos di sekitar Universitas Kristen Petra dengan pertimbangan fasilitas yang memadai dan harga terjangkau. Belum adanya pengalaman berkunjung ke Surabaya membuat saya dengan mudah menyetujui bantuan tersebut. Saya sangat berterima kasih atas bantuan ini. Singkat cerita, saya kemudian menghuni rumah kos di alamat Jalan Siwalankerto Permai I/C-7 dengan harga Rp. 600.000,- belum termasuk listrik tapi sudah ongkos cuci baju (terbatas) dan nasi putih.

Pengalaman kos di Yogyakarta semasa kuliah ternyata masih membuat saya sedikit bingung dengan fasilitas kos yang ditawarkan di Surabaya. Hampir semua kos di Surabaya (setidaknya di kawasan ini) mempunyai fasilitas Air Conditioner yang jarang ada di Yogyakarta. Setiap kamar pun sudah dipasang meteran listrik masing-masing. Jadi pemakaian setiap kamar akan dihitung dan ditanggung masing-masing. Dulu ketika masih di Kledokan, Yogyakarta, biaya listrik semua anak kos dihitung dengan gotong royong, kurang adil memang tapi setidaknya membuat kami dekat. Kondisi ini juga memaksa saya untuk sedikit hemat listrik di Surabaya. Penjaga kos hanya mengatakan bahwa listrik per Kwh sebesar Rp. 1.300,-

Setengah bulan pertama berlalu, kecurigaan saya belum terlalu meningkat. Saya pikir tagihan listrik kala itu masih wajar karena kurang dari 15 hari pemakaian. Satu hal yang membuat saya kecewa, kaget dan bingung adalah tagihan untuk bulan Mei yang sebesar Rp. 154,700,- (hasil dari 119 x Rp. 1.300,-). Aturan di kos ini adalah semua tagihan berasal dari sms pemilik kos. Oleh karena itu, saya langsung membalas sms tersebut dengan meminta tagihan resmi dari PLN dan cara penghitungannya. Setelah setengah jam, pemilik kos pun menjawab sms saya dengan mengetik bahwa tidak bisa memberikan bukti tagihan PLN dan saya diminta untuk menanyakan hal ini ke si mbak penjaga kos. Saat sampai di kos, saya pun minta penjelasan baik-baik tentang hal ini mengingat saya kerja dari jam 8 pagi dan sering kali pulang kos jam 9 malam serta tidak ada alat elektronik selain AC dan charger telepon genggam. Bagaimana biaya listrik bisa sangat tinggi? Penjelasan yang berputar-putar pun saya terima. Sebagai orang baru, saya tidak mau berkonflik dan menyatakan bahwa saya akan coba lebih irit dan kita akan lihat bagaimana hasilnya untuk bulan Juni.

Kecurigaan saya pun semakin menjadi ketika beberapa hari lalu mendapat tagihan listrik sebesar Rp. 123.500,- (hasil dari 95 x Rp. 1.300,-) untuk bulan Juni ini. Padahal penghematan yang saya lakukan terhitung luar biasa, yaitu hanya menyalakan AC dari jam 11 malam sampai jam 6 pagi dengan memakai timer yang tersedia. Sebagai informasi, AC yang ada di sini adalah merk “Honshu” yang kurang saya kenal, entah produk dari mana. Waktu menerima tagihan itu pun saya langsung membalas dengan menanyakan bahwa mengapa tagihan tetap tinggi padahal saya sudah kurangi penggunaan dan sempat cuti 4 malam ke Jakarta dan Semarang pada bulan Juni. Sampai detik ini, sms saya belum dibalas dengan penjelasan apapun. Saya berusaha tidak menuduh siapapun tapi kecurigaan ini semakin mencuat. Ada yang mengatakan bahwa meteran listrik yang dipercepat, permainan biaya listrik dan sebagainya. Kondisi ini juga diperparah dengan air kamar mandi yang selalu berpasir dengan debit air yang lebih rintik daripada gerimis di musim kemarau.

Cepat atau cepat memang saya harus segera pindah dari kos ini. Pertanyaan saya paling mendasar adalah mengapa saya tidak boleh menerima bukti tagihan resmi dari PLN. Ada apa sebenarnya? Mungkin ada pembaca yang lebih tahu bagaimana penghitungan listrik yang benar. Semoga tulisan ini tidak menjadi fitnah atau tuduhan tak berdasar tapi lebih sebagai informasi agar lebih berhati-hati memilih kos, baik di Surabaya maupun di kota lain.

The Efforts of Garuda Indonesia to Lift the European Union Flight Ban

Garuda Indonesia is the biggest national airline in Indonesia and has state-owned status. Its name clearly comes from the giant bird Garuda of Hindu and Buddhist mythology, which was the carrier of the god Vishnu. It is also the first and largest carrier in Indonesia, flying to more than 43 domestic and international destinations. With its service-oriented approach, Garuda Indonesia aims at becoming the leading service provider for air travelers and air cargo shippers in the nation. It has a total fleet of 48 aircraft consisting of three B-747-400s, six A-330-300s and 39 B-737s (300, 400, 500 and 800 series) as of 31 December 2007. With a Head Office at the Soekarno-Hatta International Airport, Garuda Indonesia currently employs 5,808 people and provides more than 93,000 departures serving more than 9 million customers each year.
The current issue facing all Indonesian airlines, including national carrier Garuda Indonesia, is that the European Union banned them in June 2007 from flying in Europe. Not only Garuda Indonesia was unable to fly to or from Europe, but EU citizens were also warned not to use the airline elsewhere in the world. The primary reason for the ban, according to the European Union’s Air Safety Committee, was the Indonesian airlines’ poor flight safety record. Many Indonesian airlines did, in fact, suffer a series of accidents in 2007, including Garuda Indonesia indeed . Nevertheless, this ban was lifted by the European Union Commission for Garuda Indonesia and three other Indonesian airlines after two years, namely in the beginning of July 2009.
This paper will explain the progress of Garuda Indonesia’s flight safety standards by examining its 2008 annual report. This annual report gives insight into the flight ban issue because of its timeline. The author of the report states that the flight ban was took effect in 2007 and lifted in July 2009. It is very interesting to analyze what Garuda Indonesia did to gain the EU Commission’s trust in lifting a part of this flight ban. The main parts to analyze are those contents of the report that regard safety.
Compared to other Indonesian airlines, Garuda Indonesia has had the best track record in safety since their launch in 1950. From 2000 until now, Garuda Indonesia has had only three plane crashes, specifically in 2002, 2004 and 2007 . The worst accident was in 2007, when a Garuda Indonesia aircraft (Boeing 737-400) crashed and burst into flames upon landing at Yogyakarta International Airport on Java Island, killing 22 people. BBC correspondents reported that the jet had started shaking violently before landing and the crash happened at about 07.00 am local time. The main cause was bad weather as well as errors made by the pilot and co-pilot. In addition to this incident, there were many other plane crashes involving Indonesian airlines in 2007, which caused the Indonesian flight safety record to be put in the spotlight .
Indonesia has more unpredictable weather than many other regions in the world, although it only has two seasons each year: wet and dry. As laid forth by the Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Indonesia, the country’s geography position has resulted three factors that cause difficulties for aircraft flights. First is its tropical climate, characterized by high precipitation and humidity. This has caused an increasing number of flights to delay out of safety concerns. Secondly, there is El Nino and La Nina every three to five years, which makes weather harder to predict . The last factor is a periodic increase in air pressure, which encourages cooling and followed by the emergence of low-pressure centers that turn into tropical storms (e.g. Fiona and Hape) . These factors explain the difficulty posed by weather condition to flight operations in Indonesia. Yet, plane crashes rarely result from a single failure, but rather from a combination of events.
With its Aviation Safety Policy, the EU seeks to ensure that all of its citizens enjoy the same level of safety in the sky around the world . The EU aviation safety system is a collaboration between the European Commission, the European Aviation Safety Agency, Eurocontrol and national civil aviation authorities of member states, as well as the aircraft manufacturers and airlines themselves. This system consists of a set of common safety rules which provide uniform requirements for operators, manufacturers and aviation personnel concerning products, services and industry . This policy applies not only to European airlines, but also to non-European airlines inspected at European airports. Implementation of this policy includes, for example, random ramp checks and subsequent flight bans within Europe if safety is judged to be below a minimum level.
Garuda Indonesia’s 2008 annual report provides data about the actions taken by the company that precipitated lifting of the flight ban by the EU in 2009. First of all, Garuda Indonesia proved that they were able to maintain their fleet of 54 aircraft through 31 December 2008, meaning there were no accidents or crashes that year. At that time, the fleet consisted of 52 aircraft for main brand flights and two aircraft for Citilink flights. This included nine wide body aircraft and 45 narrow body aircraft. Garuda Indonesia’s flight safety record has been at the highest position since 2002.
Garuda Indonesia further demonstrated its commitment to safety by upgrading the infrastructures facilities, and security and safety procedures. The most important of these upgrades was the addition of 25 Next Generation Boeing 737-800s (B 737-800 NG), ten Boeing 777-300 ERs (Extended Range) and four Airbus 330-200s . These orders were made in 2008, when Garuda Indonesia was experiencing an increase in income from operations of 437% over the previous year (around Rp. 1.186,9 billion) . It must be highlighted this profitability occurred in the midst of the global finance crisis, the company was facing challenges such as high fuel prices, depreciation of the Rupiah (Indonesian currency) and intense competition. Ultimately, these difficulties proved to be opportunities amidst uncertainty.

Garuda Indonesia decided to invest its profits into improving safety and services, although they were still unable to pay off long term loans (25,3) and other liabilities (48,6) . Despite an increase in income in 2008, Garuda Indonesia experienced a loss of 11, 8% in current assets, mostly due to a 12, 6% decrease in Cash and Cash Equivalents. This was followed by a decrease in Trade Receivables and a 20, 4% decline in Advances and Prepaid Expenses pertaining to the operational activities . Nevertheless, they were still able to both generate a profit and address safety concerns.
The turning point of the company’s transformation occurred when Garuda Indonesia was successful in obtaining IOSA certification and inclusion on the list of IOSA operators as of May 14, 2008. The IATA Operational Safety Audit (IOSA) certificate is an international accreditation of the safety and security of flights, which analyzes eight operational aspects of an airline, covering 900 flight operational standards. ‘Having secured the IOSA international flight safety certification standard, we are confident in our ability to enhance our partnerships with international airlines to expand our flight network and prepare Garuda Indonesia to become a member of global alliances’ (Emirsyah Satar: 2008).
Garuda Indonesia had been seeking IOSA certification since 2004, and in 2008 was able to show a decreasing trend in incident rate. This rate was 0, 41 incidents per 1000 departures, the lowest figure since 2002 . Garuda Indonesia was able to attain this rate by improving their Safety Management System and Security Management System (SEMS), as well as by updating the Mandatory Company Operations and holding obligatory Safety Recurrent Training for cabin crew. Besides that, Garuda Indonesia implemented an Operational Hazard Report (OHR) in an effort to reduce incidents or accidents. This reduction in incident rate was made possible by successful projects in two directorates, namely the Directorate of Operations and the Directorate of Engineering.
Improvements carried out by the Directorate of Operations include finalization of the Environmental Program Manual and auditing of four domestic stations, improvement of the Operational Communication Network in 21 domestic stations, and the reduction of delays through the On Time Enhance Program. Flight Attendance performance standards were implemented by expanding a Coaching and Counselling Program for cabin crews and monitoring customer complaints. For their part, the Directorate of Engineering was responsible for Aircraft Availability, which included integration of maintenance function with marketing and operation units, as well as for reducing maintenance costs by improving business process cost controlling, and creating and monitoring Service Level Agreements (SLAs) with each maintenance provider .
All of these improvements influenced the EU in its reversal of the flight ban on Garuda Indonesia. However, the next question is whether these efforts suffice to meet further EU standards. According to the common strategy of the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), standards are developed and their implementation is monitored via inspections by member states based on common safety and environmental rules . This means that as long as EU member states and the European Commission are satisfied with the safety inspections, the airlines do not have to worry about any future flight bans.
Now, the main task of Garuda Indonesia is to maintain and improve its safety level so that they are able to obtain full four-star safety status and guarantee its position. The main challenge to this is the maintenance and overhaul expenses which totaled Rp. 1.867,32 billion in 2008 due to increasing costs of ticketing, sales, promotion, user charges and stations. These expenditures are in line with the company's commitment to improving safety a standard, which means improving maintenance quality as well .

Sources:
In March of 2007, Garuda Flight 200 crash-landed in Yogyakarta killing 21 people including five Australians.
Garuda Airlines, Mandala Airlines and two charter operators, Airfast Indonesia and Prime Air, could be successfully complying with the EU's safety standards.
Adaptation from Center of Data and Analyst of TEMPO Magazine on http://www.pdat.co.id/hg/political_pdat/2005/09/05/celaka-pesawat.htm, accessed on April 5, 2010
“Indonesia Jet explodes on Landing”, on http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6425419.stm, accessed on April 5, 2010.
El Nino is the condition where wet season is longer than dry season. La Nina is the opposite condition of El Nino
Adaptation from the mapping of Indonesian air/weather condition from Ministry of Environment of Republic of Indonesia, 2003, on http://www.menlh.go.id/banjir/Berita/InfoFeb17.htm, accessed on April 5, 2010.
Beyond ensuring a high level of safety, the EU air safety policy promotes rules that are cost efficient and facilitate the free movement of products, services and persons involved in civil aviation. Source: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/air/safety/safety_en.htm, accessed on April 2, 2010.
“Transport: European Aviation Safety Rules” on http://ec.europa.eu/transport/air/safety/rules_en.htm, accessed on April 2, 2010.
Management Discussion and Analysis, Annual Report 2008 of Garuda Indonesia, page 38.
Report from the Board of Directors, Annual Report 2008 of Garuda Indonesia, page 24.
2007 was the worst year for all Indonesian airlines, including Garuda Indonesia.
In million Rupiah, from the Financial & Operational Highlights, period of 2004-2008.
Financial Review of Management discussion and analysis, Annual Report 2008, page 59
Safety and Other Operational Aspects, Management discussion and analysis, Annual Report 2008, page 41
Ibid, page 43. Author cited only some of their responsibilities in this case.
“Euroepan Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), on http://www.easa.europa.eu/ws_prod/g/g_about_more.php, accessed on April 6,2010.
Expenses of Financial Review, Management Discussion and Analysis of Annual Report 2008.


*It was made as an assignment for subject Approaches to International Business in Metropolitan University Prague, Czech Republic (2010)

Hinduism and Sikhism: Sebagai Pengantar

Sikhism merupakan agama terbesar ke-15 di dunia yang ditemukan melalui pengajaran Guru Nanak dan 10 guru Sikh secara berturut-turut pada abad ke-15 di Punjab. Sistem filosofi dan ekspresi keagamaannya dikenal sebagai Gurmat atau Sikh Dharma. Sikhism berasal dari kata Sikh, yang berangkat dari akar kata Sansekerta, yaitu śiṣya yang berarti ‘murid’, atau śikṣa yang bermakna ‘instruksi’. Prinsip kepercayaan Sikhism adalah keyakinan pada “waheguru” atau Universal God. Sikhism mengajarkan bahwa pencarian keselamatan diperoleh melalui disiplin diri, meditasi personal atas nama dan pesan Tuhan. Ciri khusus dari Sikhism adalah konsep non-anthropomorphis Tuhan, yaitu bahwa setiap orang dapat menafsirkan Tuhan sebagai alam semesta itu sendiri. Para penganut Sikhism ditahbiskan untuk mengikuti pengajaran 10 guru Sikh, atau pemimpin spiritual lainnya, sesuai dengan kitab sucinya yaitu Gurū Granth Sāhib, yang ditulis oleh 6 guru Sikh, termasuk para pengikut tertentunya yang berasal dari berbagai tingkatan social ekonomi dan latar belakang religious.
Hinduism dan Sikhism, merupakan dua agama yang berasal dari India serta mempunyai hubungan yang sangat kompleks. Sikhism merupakan salah satu agama yang terhitung baru di dunia apabila dibandingkan dengan Hinduism. Pernikahan Sikh-Hindu amat jarang terjadi di India. Guru Nanak yang merupakan pemimpin tertinggi Sikhism dilahirkan dalam keluarga Hindu Khatri. Ia menyatakan bahwa semua orang sama di mata Tuhan dalam pernyataannya yang terkenal, “Saya bukan orang Hindu dan juga bukan Muslim”. Pengajaran dan pewahyuan Guru Nanak terfokus pada penyatuan antara Hindu dan Muslim. Ia memiliki beberapa kepercayaan yang mirip cukup familiar dengan konsep Hindu seperti, Karma, Dharma, Reinkarnasi, dan meditasi atas nama Tuhan untuk memutuskan siklus kelahiran. Di bawah ini adalah beberapa kesamaan antara Hiduism dan Sikhism:
Kesamaan
• At the time of the Gurus, most North Indian families would remain Hindu while the eldest son was a "Sikh". Hindus enlisting their eldest sons in the Khalsa was done for protection against the Mughals.
• Many Hindus visit Sikh temples. For instance, the Hemkhund Sahib is a high-altitude lake in the Indian State of Uttarakhand is regarded as a pilgrimage site by the adherents of Hindus and a Lakshman Temple and Sikh Gurudwaara exist close together on the banks of the same lake there.
• When a Sikh dies, cremation is the preferred method. This is the same in Hinduism, although this is a cultural similarity between many cultures.
• Sikhs may also do the 'immersion of corpse remains' in a river after cremation, as Hindus do, although this is not a requirement; ashes may be deposited anywhere sentimental.
Perbedaan, Guru Nanak menolak beberapa prinsip ajaran dan pendapat dari Hinduism, seperti
• Sikhism is a monotheistic religion; Sikhs believe there is only one God, who has infinite qualities and names. Hinduism is a diverse system of thought with beliefs spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism and atheism. It is sometimes referred to as henotheistic (devotion to a single God while accepting the existence of other gods), but any such term is an oversimplification of the complexities and variations of belief.
• The Janeo (Hindu sacred thread), or 'confirmation' ritual of Hinduism.
• The Guru Granth Sahib describes many Hindu deities like Shiva and Durga, as false illusions. Sikhs do not worship in Hindu temples or go on Hindu pilgrimages.
• The caste system – Untouchability which is no longer considered a Hindu belief but an Indian social practice present in most religious groups in the country. Nonetheless, most Sikhs prefer to marry within their ethnic groups.
• Sikhs do not believe in going on pilgrimages or bathing at holy rivers.
Kemajuan Politik Sikhism (Sejarah)
Hargobrind, yang merupakan guru Sikh ke-6, membawa 2 pedang – satu untuk alasan spiritual dan lainnya untuk alasan temporal. Kemudian, Sikh berkembang sebagai komunitas yang terorganisir dan selalu dilatih mengenai cara bertempur untuk melindungi kemerdekaannya. Tahun 1665, Tegh Bahadur menjadi guru dan memimpin Sikh sampai 1675. Teg Bahadur dieksekusi oleh Aurangzeb untuk melindungi orang Hindu, setelah delegasi Kashmiri Pandits dating padanya untuk menolong ketika raja menghukum mati mereka yang tidak pindah Islam. Ia digantikan oleh anaknya, Gobind Rai yang baru berusia 9 tahun ketika ayahnya meninggal. Ia memiliterisasi para pengikutnya, dan dibaptis oleh Pañj Piārē saat ia membangun Khalsa pada 13 April 1699. Sejak itu ia lebih dikenal sebagai Gobind Singh.
Mulai dari pengajaran Nanak yang terfokus pada pencapaian keselamatan dan Tuhan sampai saat ini komunitas Sikh telah berubah secara signifikan. Bahkan, inti dari filosofi religious Sikh tidak pernah dihiraukan, para pengikutnya sekarang mulai berkonsentrasi membangun identitas politik. Konflik dengan otoritas Mughal semakin meluas selama masa hidup Teg Bahadur dan Gobind Singh. Khalsa, yang ditemukan tahun 1699, merupakan komunitas pengajaran yang mengkombinasikan manfaat dan tujuan religius dengan kewajiban militer dan politik. Secara singkat, sebelum kematiannya, Gobind Singh meminta agar Gurū Granth Sāhib (kitab suci Sikh) dijadikan otoritas spiritual tertinggi dan otoritas temporal ditetapkan pada Khalsa Panth – Bangsa atau Komunitas Sikh.
Seorang mantan pertapa ditugaskan oleh Gobind Singh dengan kewajiban untuk membunuh mereka yang menganiaya orang Sikh. Setelah kematiannya, Baba Banda Singh Bahadur menjadi pemimpin tentara Sikh dan bertanggung jawab terhadap beberapa serangan atas kerajaan Mughal. Ia dieksekusi oleh raja Jahandar Shah setelah menolak untuk pindah menjadi beragama Islam. Organisasi politik dan militer dalam persatuan komunitas Sikh membuat suatu upaya regional yang sungguh-sungguh pada abad pertengahan India dan terus dikembangkan setelah kematian para guru. Setelah meninggalnya Baba Banda Singh Bahadur, Konfederasi Sikh yang terdiri atas gerombolan pejuang Sikh dan dikenal dengan misls terbentuk. Diiringi dengan penurunan pengaruh kerajaan Mughal, Kekuasaan Sikh semakin meningkat di unjab di bawah pimpinan Maharaja Ranjit Singh, dengan ibukota di Lahore dan batasnya sampai Khyber Pass dan perbatasan China. Pengembangan tata tertib, tradisi, dan aturan-aturan selama beberapa abad mencapai puncak pada saat kepemimpinan Ranjit Singh untuk membangkitkan agama dan identitas sosial bersama yang diistilahkan dengan “Sikhism”.
Setelah kematian Ranjit Singh, kekuasaan Sikh jatuh menjadi tidak teratur dan dengan cepat dianeksasi oleh Inggris setelah perang Anglo-Sikh. Hal ini membawa Punjab berada di bawah British Raj. Sikh membentuk Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee dan Shiromani Akali Dal untuk memelihara agama organisasi politik Sikh dalam seperempat abad selanjutnya. Dengan adanya pemisahan India pada tahun 1947, ribuan orang Sikh dibunuh dengan kejam dan jutaan orang dipaksa untuk meninggalkan tempat tinggal leluhur mereka di Punjab Barat. Orang Sikh menghadapi tantangan pertamanya yang berasal dari pemerintah dalam membentuk bahasa resmi negara. Organisasi Akali Dal memulai pergerakan tanpa kekerasan bagi hak-hak orang Sikh dan kaum Punjabi. Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale muncul sebagai pemimpin dari Bhindran-Mehta Jatha, yang mengasumsikan nama Damdani Taksal pada tahun 1977 untuk mempromosikan solusi perdamaian atas masalah tersebut. Bulan Junu 1984, Perdana Menteri India, Indira Gandhi memerintahkan tentara India untuk mengadakan Operasi Blue Star demi menyingkirkan Bhindranwale dan pengikutnya dari Darbar Sahib. Bhindranwale dan sejumlah besar peziarah yang tidak berdosa terbunuh dalam operasi tersebut. Bulan Oktober, Indira Gandhi dibunuh oleh dua pengawalnya yang merupakan orang Sikh. Pembunuhan dilanjutkan dengan kerusuhan dan pembunuhan besar-besaran Anti-Sikh 1984 dan konflik Hindu-Sikh di Punjab, sebagai reaksi terhadap pembunuhan dan Operasi Blue Star.

Mekanisme Pengambilan Keputusan Uni Eropa

Seperti yang telah diketahui sebelumnya, Uni Eropa terdiri atas sejumlah institusi. Setiap institusi mempunyai tugas, kapasitas, wewenang dan peranannya masing-masing. Dalam proses pembuatan keputusan, European Union (EU) melibatkan tiga institusi tertentu yang amat penting, yaitu

1. European Commission atau Komisi Eropa

Komisi dapat dianggap sebagai jantung dari EU. Institusi ini mempersiapkan segala sesuatu mengenai proposal bagi rancangan-rancangan hukum yang baru yang diajukan kepada Council of the European Union dan Parlemen Eropa. Komisi ini juga mengawasi dan menjamin terlaksananya undang-undang atau hukum yang telah diterapkan terhadap setiap negara-negara anggota. Selain itu, komisi juga bertugas mengelola keuangan EU (Community Budget). European Commission terbagi menjadi beberapa departemen administratif yang dikenal dengan Direktorat Jenderal.

2. European Parliament (EP)

Parlemen Eropa terdiri atas perwakilan setiap negara-negara anggota yang telah dipilih melalui pemilihan langsung. Peranan EP adalah berkontribusi terhadap proses legislatif EU, untuk menjamin dan mengawasi Komisi Eropa untuk berperan sesuai dengan kewenangannya, serta bersama-sama dengan Council of the European Union, mengambil keputusan mengenai Community Budget.

3. Council of the European Union atau Dewan Uni Eropa

Biasanya dikenal sebagai Council of Ministers, yang terdiri dari perwakilan-perwakilan nasional, secara umum setingkat menteri. Menteri-menteri ini bertanggung jawab terhadap parlemen nasional mereka dan juga kepada opini publik. Dengan berdasarkan usulan undang-undang dari Komisi Eropa dan perundingan atau pendapat parlemen, Dewan Uni Eropa membuat kebijakan-kebijakan bagi EU. Keputusan diambil melalui mekanisme qualified majority, di mana setiap negara anggota memberikan suaranya sesuai dengan nilai jumlah populasi penduduk negaranya. Suatu undang-undang ditetapkan ketika prosentase jumlah suara tertentu telah dicapai. Dewan ini mempunyai dewan teknis, dan permanen atau komisi khusus yang terdiri dari perwakilan-perwakilan negara anggota, yang mempersiapkan berbagai pertemuan. Perwakilan tetap ini dikenal dengan the Committee of Permanent Representatives of the Member States (Coreper).

Secara umum, proses pembuatan keputusan diawali dengan pengajuan rancangan hukum atau undang-undang yang baru oleh Komisi Eropa, dan Dewan Uni Eropa serta Parlemen yang meluluskannya. Dalam beberapa kondisi, Dewan dapat bertindak sendiri untuk memutuskan undang-undang. Institusi-institusi yang lain juga memiliki peranannya masing-masing. Bentuk utama dari undang-undang EU adalah directives dan regulations. Prosedur dan aturan bagi pembuatan keputusan EU tertulis dengan jelas dalam berbagai traktat. Setiap proposal atau rancangan undang-undang baru EU didasarkan pada artikel traktat yang spesifik, dengan mengacu sebagai “legal basis” dalam rancangan, di mana prosedur legislasi ini wajib dipatuhi. Terdapat tiga prosedur utama, yaitu

· Consultation

Prosedur konsultasi ini digunakan dalam beberapa kondisi atau bidang, seperti pertanian, pajak dan kompetisi. Berdasarkan atas proposal dari Komisi Eropa, Dewan Uni Eropa berkonsultasi dengan Parlemen, European Economic and Social Committee dan Committee of the Regions. Parlemen Eropa dapat menyetujui proposal Komsi, menolaknya, atau meminta diadakan berbagai amandemen.

Apabila Parlemen meminta amandemen, Komisi Eropa akan sangat mempertimbangkan semua perubahan yang berasal dari saran Parlemen. Jika berbagai saran tersebut diterima dan telah diolah, Komisi Eropa akan mengirimkan proposal yang diamandemen kepada Dewan Uni Eropa. Kemudian, dewan akan memeriksanya dan bisa menerima atau pun mengamandemennya lebih jauh. Dalam prosedur ini, jika Dewan mengamandemen proposal Komisi, maka harus dilakukan dengan suara bulat atau unanimously.

· Assent

Prosedur assent (persetujuan) berarti bahwa Dewan Uni Eropa harus memperoleh persetujuan Parlemen Eropa sebelum berbagai keputusan tertentu yang amat penting diambil. Prosedur ini hampir sama dengan prosedur konsultasi, kecuali bahwa Parlemen tidak dapat mengamandemen proposal, di mana harus dipilih: menerima atau menolaknya. Persetujuan (Assent) mengharuskan adanya suara mayoritas absolute. Prosedur ini sering digunakan bagi pembentukan kesepakatan dengan negara-negara lain, termasuk kesepakatan dalam penerimaan negara anggota baru pada EU.

· Co-decision

Saat ini, prosedur Codecision adalah yang paling sering digunakan dalam pembuatan undang-undang. Dalam prosedur ini, Parlemen tidak selalu memberikan pendapatnya, dikarenakan adanya pembagian kekuasaan legislatif yang sama wewenangnya dengan Dewan Uni Eropa. Jika Dewan dan Parlemen tidak dapat menyetujui sejumlah rancangan legislasi, maka usulan tersebut harus diproses di bawah komite konsiliasi (Conciliation Committee), yang terdiri dari perwakilan anggota Parlemen dan Dewan dengan jumlah yang sama. Ketika komite telah mencapai kesepakatan, teks undang-undang tersebut dikirim sekali lagi kepada Parlemen dan Dewan sehingga dapat diterima dan ditetapkan sebagai undang-undang atau hukum. Meskipun demikian, konsiliasi cukup jarang digunakan. Pada kenyataannya, sebagian besar undang-undang yang melewati prosedur co-decision sudah dapat diterima, baik saat first reading dan second reading sebagai hasil kerjasama dan koordinasi yang baik diantara ketiga institusi tersebut.

Meskipun demikian, dapat dijelaskan secara sederhana tentang bagaimana proses pembuatan keputusan dalam EU, terutama di dalam Council of European Union melalui diagram beserta pemaparannya di bawah ini

KOMISI

EROPA

COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION

Flow Chart 1. Proses Pembuatan Keputusan dalam European Union

Proses pembuatan keputusan dimulai dengan suatu proposal dari Komisi Eropa, yang garis besarnya telah dibuat terlebih dahulu setelah berkonsultasi dengan direktorat jenderal yang relevan dan sesuai dengan rancangan undang-undang (Commission services). Ketika Komisi sedang mempersiapkan garis besar proposal, direktorat jenderal yang bersangkutan bertugas mengumpulkan bukti dari berbagai sumber, termasuk negara-negara dunia ketiga dan organisasi regional lainnya. Mereka dapat mengajukan studi khusus dan biasanya akan berkonsultasi dengan kelompok yang relevan. Departemen yang lain –tidak berkaitan secara langsung- seperti, misalnya lingkungan atau kebijakan regional, juga dapat dimintai pendapatnya. Saat proposal telah selesai dibuat, perlu dipaparkan dalam suatu pertemuan College of Commissioners.

Jika diterima oleh Commissioners, proposal tersebut dikirimkan kepada Dewan Uni Eropa, di mana akan diperiksa dengan seksama oleh working group/party dan komite yang relevan sesuai topik undang-undang. Dengan bergantung pada sifat dasar proposal, maka Dewan bisa saja melakukan konsultasi dengan Parlemen, ECOSOC, dan atau Committee of the Regions. Namun, apabila Committee of Permanent Representatives of the Member States (Coreper) telah menyetujui proposal tersebut, maka akan langsung lolos pada pertemuan dewan berikutnya tanpa perlu diadakan diskusi. Akan tetapi, jika tidak ada kesepakatan antara Coreper dan Komisi, maka proposal akan didiskusikan lebih lanjut pada pertemuan Dewan sampai menemukan kesepakatan. Jika kompromi dapat dicapai, proposal akan dapat menjadi undang-undang (Community law). Jika isu yang dibicarakan belum mendesak atau dapat dibereskan, maka Komisi harus memutuskan apakah tetap mempertahankan proposal tersebut, mengamandemennya, atau menariknya.

Sebagai tambahan, Komisi Eropa juga dapat membuat undang-undang dalam bidang-bidang tertentu yang didelegasikan oleh Dewan Uni Eropa. Bagi undang-undang seperti ini, proposal Komisi perlu diperiksa oleh perwakilan negara anggota dalam kepemimpinan komite dan juga advisory committees, sesuai dengan materi proposal. Apabila negara-negara anggota mendukungnya, maka proposal tersebut akan menjadi undang-undang Komisi Eropa.

P.S Uraian ini digunakan dalam kelas HI di Eropa Department of International Relations, UPN "Veteran" Yogyakarta. Pengampu Mr. Nikolaus Loy, MA